Abstract

This study provides a comprehensive ecological synthesis of West Nile virus transmission across North America, examining the interconnected roles of avian host competence, reservoir population dynamics, mosquito vector ecology, environmental variability, landscape structure, overwintering processes, and predictive modelling frameworks. The purpose of this review was to integrate these biological and environmental determinants within a unified systems-oriented perspective, thereby clarifying the mechanisms underlying spatial heterogeneity, seasonal amplification, and long-term viral persistence.
Drawing upon interdisciplinary scholarship and epidemiological evidence, the study employed a structured narrative synthesis to evaluate experimental infection findings, ecological field observations, climatic analyses, and contemporary modelling approaches. Particular emphasis was placed on interspecific variation in avian competence, demographic fluctuations within reservoir populations, vector–host interaction patterns, and the influence of temperature, precipitation, and urbanisation on transmission dynamics. Advances in predictive analytics and integrated surveillance architectures were also examined to assess their capacity to enhance anticipatory public health responses.
The analysis reveals that transmission intensity is driven by a confluence of ecological gradients rather than isolated factors. Highly competent avian species disproportionately shape amplification cycles, while climatic variability and land-use heterogeneity create geographically distinct risk landscapes. Overwintering mechanisms, particularly vector diapause and environmental refugia, ensure viral continuity across seasonal bottlenecks. Integrative modelling approaches strengthen outbreak forecasting and support evidence-based intervention strategies.
The study concludes that sustainable control requires adaptive, multidimensional surveillance systems that synthesise avian, entomological, climatic, and socioeconomic data. Recommendations include expanding long-term ecological monitoring, enhancing predictive modelling under climate change scenarios, and promoting coordinated governance frameworks. By aligning ecological insight with technological innovation and strategic public health planning, resilience against future outbreaks can be substantially strengthened.